Review for AP Exam on Wednesday!
Let’s review (a few) logical
fallacies!
1.
Argumentum ad
hominem – (a.k.a. argument directed against the person). The error of attacking the character or
motives of a person who has stated the idea, rather than the idea itself.
Examples: “You don’t like John Travolta? Well, you have chronic halitosis!”
“We all know
that Nixon was a liar and a cheat, so why should we believe anything he says?”
2.
Cum hoc ergo
propter hoc (“with this, therefore because of this”) – This is the fallacy
of mistaking correlation for causation, i.e.,
thinking because two things occur simultaneously, one must be the cause of the
other. E.g., President Clinton had sound economic policies. Just look at how great the economy did while
he was in office.” Of course, the robust
economy during the Clinton Administration may be a coincidence or the robust
economy could have been the product of a previous administration or Clinton ’s policies may
have actually benefited our economy.
3.
Non sequitur (“It
does not follow.”) – This is the fallacy of stating, as a conclusion, something
that does not strictly follow from the premises. E.g.,
“The inconsistency of the quality of schools in HISD is wrong; therefore, we
need the top ten percent rule.”
Obviously, there is at least one missing step in this argument, because
the inconsistency among the schools does not confirm a need for the top ten
percent rule without additional support.
4.
Slippery slope – Although not always a fallacy, a
slippery slope is an argument that claims taking one action will lead to a
series of other actions taken, without showing a causal connection between
the advocated policy and the consequent policies. E.g.,
“If we lower the drinking age, the next thing you know, we’ll legalize
marijuana, LSD, and crack cocaine.” A
slippery slope is a form of a non
sequitur.
5.
Straw man – This is the fallacy of refuting an extreme
version of your opponent’s argument.
This often involves putting words in someone’s mouth by implying or
stating that she has made arguments she hasn’t actually made. E.g.,
“Ms. Seward states that she supports the top ten percent rule because most of
the top ten percent of Bellaire High School will attend out-of-state colleges
anyway,” when in fact Ms. Seward has stated
only that she perceives certain benefits stemming from the top ten percent
rule.
6.
Bandwagon appeal – A bandwagon appeal encourages the
listener to agree with a position because everyone else does. Thus, if everyone is doing it, it must be
acceptable.
Sick and tired of
fallacies? Peruse these sentence
structures!
1.
Loose sentence – (a.k.a. cumulative sentence) begins
with the main clause and continues with the supporting details. E.g.,
“She kicked the ball on that hot Saturday afternoon, rays of sun ricocheting
off of her flaming red hair, sweat soaking her polyester purple jersey, but
with a broad grin enlivening her countenance.”
2.
Periodic sentence – delays the statement of the central
idea until the period at the end.
Periodic sentences are relatively rare; some writers use them to create
suspense by withholding the important information until the end. E.g.,
“Her blue hair waved, circles of rouge on her wrinkled cheeks, lipstick etching
the lines around her mouth, still moisturizing her skin nightly, still
corseted, she dies.” - Una Stannard
3.
Telegraphic sentences – consist mainly of content words
(i.e., few or no prepositions or
articles). E.g., “Fido died.” “Bhanu burped.” “Fiona fainted.”
4.
Imperative sentence – a command – “Quiet, sixth
period!”
5.
Declarative sentence – a statement – “Junior AP English
is an enthralling class.” (This example
is perhaps also a hyperbole.)
6.
Compound sentences – consist of at least two
independent clauses as the two following examples reflect: (i) IC; IC.
“I love John Travolta; he is my life.”
(ii) IC, (one of the fanboys) IC.
“I love John Travolta, but he has a restraining order against me.”
Remember that a
compound sentence is still a compound sentence in the presence of a conjunctive
adverb; accordingly, please be aware of this construction. (I just wrote one!) Examples of common conjunctive adverbs are as
follows:
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Also
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However
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Nevertheless
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Anyway
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Instead
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Otherwise
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Besides
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Likewise
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Still
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Consequently
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Meanwhile
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Then
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Furthermore
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Moreover
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Therefore
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7.
Complex sentences – consist of at least one independent
clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause as the following two
examples reflect: (i) SC, IC. “Because I stalked John Travolta, I must wear
this tracking device.” (ii) IC SC. “I must wear this tracking device whenever I am
within 500 yards of John Travolta.” If a
circle represents an IC, and a square represents an SC, please remember “circle
after square, put a comma there.”
8.
Compound complex sentences – contain at least two
independent clauses and one subordinate clause as the following examples
reflect: E.g.: (i) SC, IC; IC. “When May rolls around, I become bored; I am
tired of all these exams!” (ii) IC; IC
SC. “I am tired; I am bored because school has lasted too long.” (iii) IC, (fanboys) IC SC.
To conjure up a subordinating
conjunction, remember “WABU WABU WATIST”
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While
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When(ever)
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Where(ever)(as)
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As
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After
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Although
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Before
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Because
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Though
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Unless
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Until
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If
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|
|
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Since
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|
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That
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Remember that if a writer is a
skillful rhetorician, she will be persuading (or manipulating) you to agree
with her point of view. (Methods of manipulation produce meaning.) As part of
the art of persuasion, she will use at least one of the following three
appeals.
1.
Pathos[1] –
emotional – E.g., An advertisement
for an automobile shows a car with a backdrop of a stunning sunset and an
equally stunning woman draped over the hood.
2.
Ethos - the
writer establishes her credibility; the reader trusts the writer. An ethical appeal highlights the credentials
and the character of the writer. E.g., Stephen Hawking would have huge
ethical appeal in any discussion involving physics. A writer can also establish ethos by using a
concession and rebuttal, in which the writer acknowledges an opposing point of
view (but then quickly and completely refutes it).
Basic templates for a concession
and rebuttal include the following (more follow on the next pages):
“Although I grant that
_______________, I still maintain that ____________.”
“Although I concede that
_________ is true, this point is moot because _________.”
“Proponents of X are right to
argue that ____________. But they
exaggerate when they claim that _____________.”
“While it is true that
____________, it does not necessarily follow that __________.”
“On the one hand, I agree with X
that ______________. But on the other
hand, I still insist that _________________.”
Of course, you may compose your
own. You will use a concession and
rebuttal in your persuasive essay (ADQ) and your synthesis essay.
3.
Logos –
logical appeal – appeals to the reader’s reasoning capabilities.
Types of logos include the
following:
Inductive reasoning begins with
examples or specifics and generalizes logically from there. (Remember that a capital “I,” at least the
way Ms. Seward writes it, is narrow at the top and broad at the bottom.)
Deductive reasoning begins with a
general principle and proceeds with details.
A syllogism is a formalized method of
expressing deductive reasoning. A
syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. E.g.:
The
world is complex.
Nonlinear
systems in physics account for complexity.
Nonlinear
systems render a fuller account of the world.
The Toulmin model of argumentation is a
less formalized form of deductive reasoning.
In the Toulmin model, the data supports the claim, and the
warrant forms the bridge between the data and the claim. The data are comprised of the evidence,
facts, and information that are the reasons for the claim in the first
place. Data may take the form of
anecdotes, examples, testimony, or statistics.
The claim is the position on the issue. The warrant establishes the logical
connection between the data and the claim. The warrant is important; it is the
component that persuades the reader. A warrant
may be authoritative (expert testimony), motivational (relies on appeals to the
reader’s convictions, virtues, or values), or substantive (more traditional
logic such as cause and effect). Warrants
answer the unspoken question “How did you arrive at that claim based upon
the data presented?”
For purposes of the AP English Language and
Composition Exam, you may want to use the Toulmin model as a way to craft your
claim or thesis for the persuasive essay.
E.g.:
Because ____ [data] ______, it is
therefore ___ [claim] _______ since __ [warrant] _____.
Remember that often the
“therefore” in this template sounds awkward; accordingly, feel free to omit it!
Templates – use them as you see
fit
Additional Helpful Templates
When writing a persuasive or a synthesis essay, the
following templates[2] may be
helpful:
Introducing an Ongoing Debate and Concluding with your Thesis:
“In discussions of X, one
controversial issue has been _______. On
the one hand, _______argues _________.
On the other hand, ___________ contends ___________. Others even maintain ________________. My own view is ________________. “
Introducing an Author’s Viewpoint:
- X
acknowledges that __________.
- X
agrees that ________________.
- X
argues that _________________.
- X
believes that _______________.
- X
denies that ________________.
- X
claims that _______________.
- X
complains that _______________.
- X
concedes that _______________.
- X
demonstrates that _____________.
- X
deplores the tendency to __________.
- X
emphasizes that ____________.
- X
insists that ___________________.
- X
observes that ______________.
- X
questions whether ______________.
- X
refutes the claim that _______________.
- X
reminds us that _______________.
- X
reports that __________________.
- X
suggests that ____________________.
- X
urges us to ____________________.
Introducing Quotes
If you require your students to cite to sources, whether
summarizing, paraphrasing, or embedding quotes, the following templates may be
useful:
- X
states, “______.”
- As the
prominent journalist X puts it, “___________.”
- According
to X, “_________.”
- X
himself writes, “__________.”
- In her
book, ________, X maintains that “_________.”
- Writing
in the journal The National Review,
Kevin Williamson complains that “____.”
- In X’s
view, “______.”
- X
agrees when she writes, “________.”
- X
disagrees when he writes, “___________________.”
- X
complicates matters further when he writes, “________________.”
Supporting Quotes with Commentary
After the students introduce the
quote, they will need to comment or provide commentary. Asking the students to highlight the portions
of quoted matter versus the portions of commentary may hit home to them that
their commentary must support and explain the quote in a way that bests
supports their theses. Templates to
guide students in explaining quotations are as follows:
·
Basically, X is saying that ________.
·
In other words, X believes _____________.
·
In making this comment, X argues that
___________.
·
X is insisting that ____________________.
·
X’s point is that _________________________.
·
The essence of X’s arguments is that
_______________.
Concessions and Rebuttals
In my opinion, concessions and
rebuttals only strengthen students’ arguments.
Templates to guide your students through this part of the process are as
follows:
- Although I grant that _____, I still maintain that
____________.
- Proponents of X are right to argue that
___________. But they exaggerate
when they claim that _____________.
- While it is true that ______________, it does not
necessarily follow that ____________.
- On the one hand, I agree with X that
___________. But on the other hand,
I still insist that _____________________.
Rebuttals
Finally, your students may just
want to express disagreement with a source or to emphasize their
rebuttals. Templates for simple
disagreements are as follows:
- I think X is mistaken because she overlooks
_____________.
- X’s claim that ________ rests upon the questionable
assumption that _________.
- I disagree with X’s view that _____________ because,
as recent research confirms, ______.
- By focusing on _____, X overlooks the
deeper problem of ___________.
- X claims _________, but we don’t need
him to tell us that. Anyone
familiar with _____ had long known that __________.
Speaking of
that blasted exam …
Multiple choice – You will have an hour to answer from 45 to 60
questions. You will receive one point
for every correct answer, zero points for no answer. There is no guessing penalty on the English
Language AP. The questions are NOT in
order from easiest to most difficult. Answer
the line reference questions first.
Circle the more difficult questions and return to them if you have
time. For example, you may want to skip
the time-consuming questions such as “This passage contains all of the
following EXCEPT,” and the ones with answer choices such as “I, II, and III; I
and II only; I and III only.” Of course,
if you have time, revisit the questions you skipped. Remember to divide the sixty minutes by the
number of passages and write your beginning and ending time on your packet and
stick to your time frames.
Documentation – One of
passages will ask you about footnotes and documentation. You should be able to parse the following
footnotes. Remember that longer works
(books, magazines, journals, films, and television shows) are italicized or
underlined; shorter works (chapters, articles, short films, and episodes) sport
quotation marks.
John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Values in America
“Machine Tools at the
Philadelphia Convention,” Engineering
(26 May 1876 ), p.
427, cited by Kasson, see note 1 above.
“The International Exhibition of
1876,” Scientific American Supplement
(17 June 1876 ),
p. 386, cited by Kasson, see note 1 above.
Richard Guy Wilson, Dianne H.
Pilgrim, Dickran Tashjian, The Machine
Age in America
The Synthesis essay - You will have fifteen minutes to read the
seven or eight sources provided and to begin writing your essay (in fact, any
of the essays you choose). You will
likely be required to integrate at least three sources into a coherent,
well-written essay, in which you will likely be asked to defend, challenge, or
qualify a claim or to advise your reader on a certain topic.
Therefore, you MUST read the
prompt and instructions carefully. Draw a box around the prompt and task. Jot down your thesis as well as any outside
sources you may use BEFORE you peruse your provided sources. Write your claim in the first paragraph. You may write in first person in this
essay. You MUST cite to at least three
sources or however many sources the instructions require. Peruse the citation for each source, box all
“notable quotables,” and write a plus, minus, or “n” in each upper right hand
corner. You MUST quote and paraphrase
from these sources. You MUST cite to a
source each time you quote or mention information or ideas found in the
source. You may cite to the sources as
“Source A,” “Source B,” etc.
Allow the sources to support your
original argument, but do not fall into the trap of using a plethora of the
sources and ignoring your own original ideas.
Sources for your own ideas may include personal experience, observation,
and reading. In other words, you should,
if at all possible, use outside examples to support your claim. You should include a concession and rebuttal
to establish ethos. Remember to
consider the validity of your sources (date of publication, type of publication,
if any). If a source looks too old or
just “fishy,” go ahead and use it if you would like, but concede to your reader
any potential flaws. You will receive
points for your academic integrity and sophistication.
Transitions – You should have them, between paragraphs, between
sentences, between ideas.
The following is a list of
popular transitions. Of course, the best
transitions are the ones that you compose yourself alluding to a former point
while hinting of a point to come. Also
(note the transition!), remember that your transition need not be the first
word in the sentence.
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Consequently
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Subsequently
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Simply put
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In sum
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Therefore
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Thus
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Specifically
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For example
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Indeed
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Instead
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Arguably
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Allegedly
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Surprisingly
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Consider the case[3]
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Additionally
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Also
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Accordingly
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Furthermore
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Moreover
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Despite the foregoing
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Likewise
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Similarly
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Because of ____,
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In keeping with _____,
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As the foregoing statement
reflects[4]
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In fact
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Insofar as
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Admittedly
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Given the foregoing
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Go wild! Compose a
few!
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Rhetorical analysis – Read and annotate the prompt for
approximately five – 10 of your 40 minutes.
Remember to read the title to the passage, and read the prompt and
instructions carefully. Specifically
identify the author’s purpose or claim in your first paragraph. Note diction, syntax, tone (recall that the
readers prefer to see tone described in an adjective-noun pair, e.g., “restrained anger”), and imagery. Also recall “method reinforces meaning, which
leads to manipulation” (persuasion).
Avoid first person. Discuss the
author’s writing in present tense.
Remember the rhetorical triangle.
Please note that there are many ways to skin the rhetorical cat. You may use any of the acronyms mentioned
below. You may discuss how the author
uses the three appeals to convey his or her point. The most recent trend seems to be a
chronological analysis of the piece, i.e.,
begin your discussion with the first paragraph of the piece follow it to its
conclusion. All approaches are
acceptable; just write and think well.
Rhetorical Analysis Cheat Sheet
Read the prompt carefully – remember BAT (background, advice,
task).
Draw a box around the task.
Draw a rhetorical triangle in the upper left hand corner of your
paper. Identify speaker\writer,
audience\reader, and subject\exigence (reason compelling the speaker to speak)
For about 10-20 minutes read and annotate the selection
carefully.
Determine the author’s\speaker’s specific purpose, and write it on
your prompt.
Conduct triage – Decide
what aspects of the selection to analyze.
All of the aspects of the
analysis must be related to the author’s purpose. E.g., if the selection’s alliteration merely catches the reader’s
attention or engages the reader, that is insufficient reason to include that
alliteration in your analysis. On the
other hand, if the repetition of the consonant “s” at the beginning of several
words creates a hissing sound that echoes the disapproval of the mob against a
rebel protesting the status quo, and that protest relates to the speaker\author’s
purpose, that alliteration is worthy of inclusion in your analysis.
Write a game plan (outline, bubble chart, bullet points) on your
prompt BEFORE you begin your essay.
Frontloading will save you time and heartache.
Write in third person; write
in present tense; write both of the
author’s names the first time you mention him/her, and by surname only
thereafter.
First paragraph – Describe specifically the author’s
purpose; remember that your first paragraph may consist of one sentence.
Remember that current thinking favors discussing and analyzing the selection chronologically. I.e., your analysis should start with
the first paragraph, continue throughout the selection, and conclude with an
analysis of the author’s conclusion.
What follows is a laundry list of
items that you may consider when
analyzing a piece. It is up to you to choose a
few features to discuss in depth.
Also please remember that your AP reader is not looking for you to
simply name a rhetorical device. (e.g.,
Hey, look, I found a chiasmus!) Instead,
your reader is much more interested in you
describing precisely the effect of the rhetoric on the reader and how that
effect helps the author achieve his or her purpose.
Appeals – An author establishes
an appeal (e.g., pathos) through the
use of rhetorical manipulations of language (e.g., Florence Kelly -achieves pathos through her use of
emotionally charged diction, such as “little white girls work all night
while we sleep” (emphasis added).
Pathos – emotional appeal (may be
logically fallacious)
Ethos – ethical appeal (concession and
rebuttal)
Logos – Inductive v. deductive (syllogism)
(Toulmin)
Structure – length and
progression of paragraphs
Syntax – Loose (cumulative)
(independent clause placed at the beginning)
Periodic
(independent clause placed near the end)
Telegraphic
Polysyndeton
Asyndeton
Simple, complex, compound
NO NAKED SYNTAX!!
Diction – e.g., jargon, colloquialism, details of language – use tone words
to describe diction.
NO NAKED DICTION!
Tone – adj. /noun (“a tone of
restrained anger”) or adverb/adjective (“an emotionally charged tone”)
Tone shifts
Perspective and voice (first
person, e.g. and passive)
Handy acronyms:
DIDLS – diction, imagery,
details, language, syntax
FIODDS – figurative language,
imagery, occasion, details, diction, syntax
SOAPSTONE – subject, occasion,
audience, purpose, speaker, tone
Also, do not forget the impact
and efficiency of a single “emphasis added.”
Persuasive essay – Please read the prompt and instructions carefully!!
Write your claim in the first paragraph.
If you are asked to do so, you must
take a stand. Don’t confuse
qualification with a balanced approach. (You will get a “4” for a balanced
approach.) You may write in first person in this essay. You MUST provide evidence to support your
claim. Possible sources for your
evidence may include personal experience, observation, and reading. You should include a concession and rebuttal
to establish your ethos.
[1] PLEASE
remember that one refers to the appeals as “pathos,” ethos,” and “logos” OR
“emotional appeal,” “ethical appeal,” and “logical appeal.” If, on the AP exam, you write a silly term
such as “pathos appeal,” you will be escorted immediately from the room and
banned from College Board Exams for life.
(I concede, however, that some of you may view this consequence as a
reward. There is no rebuttal to this
concession.)
[2] They Say, I Say, Graff and Birkenstein,
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. (2006).
[3] Muchas
gracias, Testmasters!
[4] This
clause is a subordinate clause, which should be followed by a comma, right?
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